Refrigeration | Wikipedia audio article
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00:02:54 1 History
00:03:03 1.1 Earliest forms of cooling
00:05:13 1.2 Ice harvesting
00:07:28 1.3 Refrigeration research
00:13:10 1.4 Commercial use
00:19:04 1.5 Home and consumer use
00:21:48 2 Impact on settlement patterns
00:22:39 2.1 Refrigerated rail cars
00:25:35 2.2 Expansion west and into rural areas
00:28:06 2.3 Rise of the galactic city
00:29:38 3 Impact on agriculture and food production
00:30:48 3.1 Demographics
00:32:05 3.2 Meat packing and trade
00:33:55 3.3 Electricity in rural areas
00:35:34 3.4 Farm use
00:36:09 4 Effects on lifestyle and diet
00:37:17 4.1 Impact on nutrition
00:38:40 5 Current applications of refrigeration
00:41:14 6 Methods of refrigeration
00:41:31 6.1 Non-cyclic refrigeration
00:42:10 6.2 Cyclic refrigeration
00:44:14 6.2.1 Vapor-compression cycle
00:46:26 6.2.2 Sorption cycle
00:46:34 6.2.2.1 Absorption cycle
00:48:08 6.2.2.2 Adsorption cycle
00:48:32 6.2.3 Gas cycle
00:50:03 6.3 Thermoelectric refrigeration
00:50:28 6.4 Magnetic refrigeration
00:51:42 6.5 Other methods
00:52:40 6.6 Elastocaloric refrigeration
00:55:08 6.7 Fridge Gate
00:56:35 6.8 Passive systems
00:57:06 7 Capacity ratings
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I cannot teach anybody anything, I can only make them think.
- Socrates
SUMMARY
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Refrigeration is the process of cooling a space, substance, or system to lower and/or maintain its temperature below the ambient one (while the removed heat is rejected at a higher temperature). In other words, refrigeration means artificial (human-made) cooling. Heat is removed from a low-temperature reservoir and transferred to a high-temperature reservoir. The work of heat transfer is traditionally driven by mechanical means, but can also be driven by heat, magnetism, electricity, laser, or other means. Refrigeration has many applications, including, but not limited to: household refrigerators, industrial freezers, cryogenics, and air conditioning. Heat pumps may use the heat output of the refrigeration process, and also may be designed to be reversible, but are otherwise similar to air conditioning units.
Refrigeration has had a large impact on industry, lifestyle, agriculture, and settlement patterns. The idea of preserving food dates back to at least the ancient Roman and Chinese empires. However, mechanical refrigeration technology has rapidly evolved in the last century, from ice harvesting to temperature-controlled rail cars. The introduction of refrigerated rail cars contributed to the westward expansion of the United States, allowing settlement in areas that were not on main transport channels such as rivers, harbors, or valley trails. Settlements were also developing in infertile parts of the country, filled with newly discovered natural resources.
These new settlement patterns sparked the building of large cities which are able to thrive in areas that were otherwise thought to be inhospitable, such as Houston, Texas, and Las Vegas, Nevada. In most developed countries, cities are heavily dependent upon refrigeration in supermarkets, in order to obtain their food for daily consumption. The increase in food sources has led to a larger concentration of agricultural sales coming from a smaller percentage of existing farms. Farms today have a much larger output per person in comparison to the late 1800s. This has resulted in new food sources available to entire populations, which has had a large impact on the nutrition of society.
As quite similar criteria shall be fulfilled by working fluids (refrigerants) applied to heat pumps, refrigeration, and organic Rankine cycles; several working fluids are applied by all these technologies. Ammonia was one of the first refrigerants. Refrigeration can be defined as The science of providing and maintaining temperature below that of surrounding atmosphere. It means continuous extraction of heat from ...
House Session 2011-06-22 (09:31:04-10:19:53)
Consideration of the bills (H.R. 2021) to amend the Clean Air Act regarding air pollution from Outer Continental Shelf activities and (H.R. 1249) to amend title 35, United States Code, to provide for patent reform (Subject to a Rule).
Cuisine of the United States | Wikipedia audio article
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Cuisine of the United States
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The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.
- Socrates
SUMMARY
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American cuisine reflects the history of the United States, blending the culinary contributions of various groups of people from around the world, including indigenous American Indians, African Americans, Asians, Europeans, Pacific Islanders, and South Americans. Early Native Americans utilized a number of cooking methods in early American Cuisine that have been blended with early European cooking methods to form the basis of American cuisine. The European settlement of the Americas yielded the introduction of a number of various ingredients, spices, herbs, and cooking styles to the latter. The various styles continued expanding well into the 19th and 20th centuries, proportional to the influx of immigrants from many different nations; this influx nurtured a rich diversity in food preparation throughout the country.
When the colonists came to the colonies, they farmed animals for clothing and meat in a similar fashion to what they had done in Europe. They had cuisine similar to their previous British cuisine. The American colonial diet varied depending on the settled region in which someone lived. Commonly hunted game included deer, bear, buffalo, and wild turkey. A number of fats and oils made from animals served to cook much of the colonial foods. Prior to the Revolution, New Englanders consumed large quantities of rum and beer, as maritime trade provided them relatively easy access to the goods needed to produce these items: rum was the distilled spirit of choice, as the main ingredient, molasses, was readily available from trade with the West Indies. In comparison to the northern colonies, the southern colonies were quite diverse in their agricultural diet.
During the 18th and 19th centuries, Americans developed many new foods. During the Progressive Era of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, c. 1890s–1920s, food production and presentation became more industrialized. One characteristic of American cooking is the fusion of multiple ethnic or regional approaches into completely new cooking styles. A wave of celebrity chefs began with Julia Child and Graham Kerr in the 1970s, with many more following after the rise of cable channels, such as the Food Network and Cooking Channel, in the late 20th century.