Minar Sarban,Isfahan, Iran 23.3.2013
Minar-e-Sarban
Minar-e-Sarban, literally meaning the minaret of the Camel Driver, stands a few hundred meters away from the minaret of Chihil Dukhtaran, in the Jubareh quarter (mohllah) of Isfahan. Both minarets are excellent examples of twelfth century, free-standing, Central Iranian Seljuq brick minarets. The Minar Sarban was built 48 meters high between 1130-55 and thus measures more than twice as tall than the minaret of Chihil Dukhtaran. Architectural historians consider it to be possibly part of a mosque complex that does not exist now. The local tradition about the love affair between Princess Zubaida and a camel driver (Sarban) who is reported to have been thrown from the top of the Minar is not generally accepted by historians.
The debate between me and my Iranian daughter, Sharareh about the height of Minaret was ultimately won by her and I lost the bet where after I served Ice-cream (Bastani) to her and her cousins.
The minaret today displays an obvious tilt to the west and damage to its delicate cornices, raising concern for its state of preservation. UNESCO my like to take notice of this great historical monument.
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Please watch: Farhat Abbas Shah, Dubai Mushaera 1996
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Minar Chihil Dukhtaran, Isfahan, Iran 23.3.2013
Chihil-Dukhtaran Minaret The minaret of Chihil Dukhtaran stands in a small alleyway within the maze like streets of the Jubareh quarter(mohallah) of Isfahan. It is old part of the city. It is one of the earliest examples of brick work with triangles, squares, octagons, cruciform designs. It stands in solitary grandeur, not part of any extant building complex. The Chihil Dukhtaran of Isfahan was built in 1107-8 by Abi Al Fath Nahuji in the reign of Sultan (King) Malik Mohammad Shah. It is an outstanding example of a free standing Seljuq minaret with a cylindrical shaft ornamented with varying brick patterns and tile inlays. The origin of the term, Chihil Dukhtaran (Forty virgins/unmarried daughters) cannot be ascribed with certainty to any historical event or patron type despite the various folk interpretations. One of the traditions is that before the construction of this minaret there was a building located here which was exclusively reserved for women. The building was ascribed to pre-Islamic Zoroastrian water goddess “Anahita”. This minaret was added to the building and was named as “Minar of Forty Daughters”. Word ‘Forty’ denotes “countless” in old Persian. The people living around the Minaret tell another story that since many centuries upto mid 20th century (when the staircase of the minaret was closed due to its worsening condition), the girls who could not be married for some reason, came to the minaret and broke walnut on its staircase and distributed its nut (core) among people after mixing with raisin This action brought mercy of God to them and they soon got married. The minaret has got David Star engraved on it which implies that this area was previously resided mostly by Jews. Five Quranic verses from Surah ‘Taha’ are also written on it. Initially this minaret had got names of four Guided Caliphs engraved on it. Three names were removed by people leaving the name of Imam Ali, after Safavid rulers of Iran declared Shia Islam as state religion instead of Shafei Religion in 16th Century AD. The minaret is 21 meters high. Originally it was 25 meters. The staircase is no longer in use because of its bad condition.
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Please watch: Farhat Abbas Shah, Dubai Mushaera 1996
-~-~~-~~~-~~-~-
The Shaking Minaret
How a Dutch backpacker travelled the Silk road and opened a guesthouse in the Central Desert of Iran in a 2000 year old citadel village named Kharanaq.
The Minar Jomban near Esfahan city, Iran
Hamame Sheikh Bahai in Iran
The bath of Sheikh Bahai is located in a small street named after him in the southern section of the old bazaar close to the Masjed-e-Jomeh.The bathroom derives its principal fame from the story that it was warmed by a single candle ,which was placed in a closed space and never needed renewing.
.....The most famous of these was a bath called Hammam-e-Bahai (the bath of Bahai). Regardless of the time of the year, the water in the bath was always lukewarm. In their curiosity to find out how it worked, the British destroyed the bath several centuries later. To their surprise, they discovered only a small candle burning below the water reservoir, which had somehow managed to keep the water temperature steady for over 250 years!
The candle was rather larger than the ones we use on tables, and the clay pipes which circulated the water became unusable many years ago. According to his own instructions, the candle's fire would be put out once disclosed. This happened during the restoration and repair of the building and no one could make the system work again.
Sheikh Bahai Bath (English)
Sheikh Bahai Bath (English)
Afghanistan | Wikipedia audio article
This is an audio version of the Wikipedia Article:
Afghanistan
00:03:29 1 Etymology
00:04:15 2 History
00:05:31 2.1 Pre-Islamic period
00:09:06 2.2 Islamization and Mongol invasion
00:11:33 2.3 Hotak dynasty and Durrani Empire
00:14:22 2.4 British influence and independent kingdom
00:18:47 2.5 PDPA coup d'état and Soviet war
00:22:42 2.6 Proxy and civil war and Islamic jihad 1989–96
00:26:30 2.7 Taliban Emirate and Northern Alliance
00:28:53 2.8 Recent history (2002–present)
00:31:57 3 Geography
00:35:10 4 Demographics
00:36:33 4.1 Ethnic groups
00:36:48 4.2 Languages
00:37:45 4.3 Religion
00:38:37 5 Governance
00:39:56 5.1 Elections and parties
00:41:36 5.2 Administrative divisions
00:43:09 5.3 Foreign relations and military
00:44:49 5.4 Law enforcement
00:46:22 6 Economy
00:50:09 6.1 Mining
00:52:16 7 Transportation
00:52:26 7.1 Air
00:53:21 7.2 Rail
00:54:20 7.3 Roads
00:55:18 8 Health
00:57:08 9 Education
00:59:53 10 Culture
01:02:32 10.1 Media and entertainment
01:04:56 10.2 Communication
01:05:41 10.3 Cuisine
01:06:15 10.4 Poetry
01:06:55 10.5 Sports
01:09:25 11 See also
Listening is a more natural way of learning, when compared to reading. Written language only began at around 3200 BC, but spoken language has existed long ago.
Learning by listening is a great way to:
- increases imagination and understanding
- improves your listening skills
- improves your own spoken accent
- learn while on the move
- reduce eye strain
Now learn the vast amount of general knowledge available on Wikipedia through audio (audio article). You could even learn subconsciously by playing the audio while you are sleeping! If you are planning to listen a lot, you could try using a bone conduction headphone, or a standard speaker instead of an earphone.
You can find other Wikipedia audio articles too at:
You can upload your own Wikipedia articles through:
The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.
- Socrates
SUMMARY
=======
Afghanistan ( (listen); Pashto/Dari: افغانستان, Pashto: Afġānistān [avɣɒnisˈtɒn, ab-], Dari: Afġānestān [avɣɒnesˈtɒn]), officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within South-Central Asia. Afghanistan is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east; Iran in the west; Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north; and in the far northeast, China. Its territory covers 652,000 square kilometers (252,000 sq mi) and much of it is covered by the Hindu Kush mountain range, which experience very cold winters. The north consists of fertile plains, whilst the south-west consists of deserts where temperatures can get very hot in summers. Kabul serves as the capital and its largest city.
Human habitation in Afghanistan dates back to the Middle Paleolithic Era, and the country's strategic location along the Silk Road connected it to the cultures of the Middle East and other parts of Asia. The land has historically been home to various peoples and has witnessed numerous military campaigns, including those by Alexander the Great, Mauryas, Muslim Arabs, Mongols, British, Soviets, and since 2001 by the United States with NATO-allied countries. It has been called unconquerable and nicknamed the graveyard of empires. The land also served as the source from which the Kushans, Hephthalites, Samanids, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Khaljis, Mughals, Hotaks, Durranis, and others have risen to form major empires.The political history of the modern state of Afghanistan began with the Hotak and Durrani dynasties in the 18th century. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a buffer state in the Great Game between British India and the Russian Empire. Its border with British India, the Durand Line, was formed in 1893 but it is not recognized by the Afghan government and it has led to strained relations with Pakistan since the latter's independence in 1947. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919 the country was free of foreign influence, eventually becoming a monarchy under King Amanullah, until almost 50 years later when Zahir Shah was overthrown and a republic was established. In 1978, after a second coup Afghanistan first became a socialist state and then a Soviet Union protectorate. This evoked the Soviet–Afghan War in the 1980s against mujahideen rebels. By 1996 most of Afghanistan was captured by the Islamic fundamentalist group the Taliban, who ruled most of the country as a totalitarian regime for over five years. The Taliban were forcibly removed by the NATO-led coalition, and a new democratically-elected government political structure was formed.
Afghanistan is a unitary presidential Islamic republic with a population of 31 million, mostly composed of ethnic Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras and Uzbeks. It is a member of the United Nations, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, th ...
Afghanistan | Wikipedia audio article
This is an audio version of the Wikipedia Article:
Afghanistan
00:03:28 1 Etymology
00:04:14 2 History
00:05:30 2.1 Pre-Islamic period
00:09:05 2.2 Islamization and Mongol invasion
00:11:32 2.3 Hotak dynasty and Durrani Empire
00:14:21 2.4 British influence and independent kingdom
00:18:45 2.5 PDPA coup d'état and Soviet war
00:22:40 2.6 Proxy and civil war and Islamic jihad 1989–96
00:26:27 2.7 Taliban Emirate and Northern Alliance
00:28:50 2.8 Recent history (2002–present)
00:31:54 3 Geography
00:35:06 4 Demographics
00:36:28 4.1 Ethnic groups
00:36:44 4.2 Languages
00:37:40 4.3 Religion
00:38:32 5 Governance
00:39:51 5.1 Elections and parties
00:41:31 5.2 Administrative divisions
00:43:04 5.3 Foreign relations and military
00:44:44 5.4 Law enforcement
00:46:17 6 Economy
00:50:03 6.1 Mining
00:52:10 7 Transportation
00:52:19 7.1 Air
00:53:15 7.2 Rail
00:54:13 7.3 Roads
00:55:11 8 Health
00:57:00 9 Education
00:59:45 10 Culture
01:02:24 10.1 Media and entertainment
01:04:47 10.2 Communication
01:05:33 10.3 Cuisine
01:06:06 10.4 Poetry
01:06:46 10.5 Sports
01:09:15 11 See also
Listening is a more natural way of learning, when compared to reading. Written language only began at around 3200 BC, but spoken language has existed long ago.
Learning by listening is a great way to:
- increases imagination and understanding
- improves your listening skills
- improves your own spoken accent
- learn while on the move
- reduce eye strain
Now learn the vast amount of general knowledge available on Wikipedia through audio (audio article). You could even learn subconsciously by playing the audio while you are sleeping! If you are planning to listen a lot, you could try using a bone conduction headphone, or a standard speaker instead of an earphone.
You can find other Wikipedia audio articles too at:
You can upload your own Wikipedia articles through:
The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.
- Socrates
SUMMARY
=======
Afghanistan ( (listen); Pashto/Dari: افغانستان, Pashto: Afġānistān [avɣɒnisˈtɒn, ab-], Dari: Afġānestān [avɣɒnesˈtɒn]), officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within south-central Asia. Afghanistan is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east; Iran in the west; Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north; and in the far northeast, China. Its territory covers 652,000 square kilometers (252,000 sq mi) and much of it is covered by the Hindu Kush mountain range, which experience very cold winters. The north consists of fertile plains, whilst the south-west consists of deserts where temperatures can get very hot in summers. Kabul serves as the capital and its largest city.
Human habitation in Afghanistan dates back to the Middle Paleolithic Era, and the country's strategic location along the Silk Road connected it to the cultures of the Middle East and other parts of Asia. The land has historically been home to various peoples and has witnessed numerous military campaigns, including those by Alexander the Great, Mauryas, Muslim Arabs, Mongols, British, Soviets, and since 2001 by the United States with NATO-allied countries. It has been called unconquerable and nicknamed the graveyard of empires. The land also served as the source from which the Kushans, Hephthalites, Samanids, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Khaljis, Mughals, Hotaks, Durranis, and others have risen to form major empires.The political history of the modern state of Afghanistan began with the Hotak and Durrani dynasties in the 18th century. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a buffer state in the Great Game between British India and the Russian Empire. Its border with British India, the Durand Line, was formed in 1893 but it is not recognized by the Afghan government and it has led to strained relations with Pakistan since the latter's independence in 1947. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919 the country was free of foreign influence, eventually becoming a monarchy under King Amanullah, until almost 50 years later when Zahir Shah was overthrown and a republic was established. In 1978, after a second coup Afghanistan first became a socialist state and then a Soviet Union protectorate. This evoked the Soviet–Afghan War in the 1980s against mujahideen rebels. By 1996 most of Afghanistan was captured by the Islamic fundamentalist group the Taliban, who ruled most of the country as a totalitarian regime for over five years. The Taliban were forcibly removed by the NATO-led coalition, and a new democratically-elected government political structure was formed.
Afghanistan is a unitary presidential Islamic republic with a population of 31 million, mostly composed of ethnic Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras and Uzbeks. It is a member of the United Nations, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, th ...
Afghanistan | Wikipedia audio article
This is an audio version of the Wikipedia Article:
Afghanistan
00:03:28 1 Etymology
00:04:14 2 History
00:05:30 2.1 Pre-Islamic period
00:09:05 2.2 Islamization and Mongol invasion
00:11:32 2.3 Hotak dynasty and Durrani Empire
00:14:21 2.4 British influence and independent kingdom
00:18:45 2.5 PDPA coup d'état and Soviet war
00:22:40 2.6 Proxy and civil war and Islamic jihad 1989–96
00:26:27 2.7 Taliban Emirate and Northern Alliance
00:28:50 2.8 Recent history (2002–present)
00:31:54 3 Geography
00:35:06 4 Demographics
00:36:28 4.1 Ethnic groups
00:36:44 4.2 Languages
00:37:40 4.3 Religion
00:38:32 5 Governance
00:39:51 5.1 Elections and parties
00:41:31 5.2 Administrative divisions
00:43:04 5.3 Foreign relations and military
00:44:44 5.4 Law enforcement
00:46:17 6 Economy
00:50:03 6.1 Mining
00:52:10 7 Transportation
00:52:19 7.1 Air
00:53:15 7.2 Rail
00:54:13 7.3 Roads
00:55:11 8 Health
00:57:00 9 Education
00:59:45 10 Culture
01:02:24 10.1 Media and entertainment
01:04:47 10.2 Communication
01:05:33 10.3 Cuisine
01:06:06 10.4 Poetry
01:06:46 10.5 Sports
01:09:15 11 See also
Listening is a more natural way of learning, when compared to reading. Written language only began at around 3200 BC, but spoken language has existed long ago.
Learning by listening is a great way to:
- increases imagination and understanding
- improves your listening skills
- improves your own spoken accent
- learn while on the move
- reduce eye strain
Now learn the vast amount of general knowledge available on Wikipedia through audio (audio article). You could even learn subconsciously by playing the audio while you are sleeping! If you are planning to listen a lot, you could try using a bone conduction headphone, or a standard speaker instead of an earphone.
You can find other Wikipedia audio articles too at:
You can upload your own Wikipedia articles through:
The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.
- Socrates
SUMMARY
=======
Afghanistan ( (listen); Pashto/Dari: افغانستان, Pashto: Afġānistān [avɣɒnisˈtɒn, ab-], Dari: Afġānestān [avɣɒnesˈtɒn]), officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within south-central Asia. Afghanistan is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east; Iran in the west; Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north; and in the far northeast, China. Its territory covers 652,000 square kilometers (252,000 sq mi) and much of it is covered by the Hindu Kush mountain range, which experience very cold winters. The north consists of fertile plains, whilst the south-west consists of deserts where temperatures can get very hot in summers. Kabul serves as the capital and its largest city.
Human habitation in Afghanistan dates back to the Middle Paleolithic Era, and the country's strategic location along the Silk Road connected it to the cultures of the Middle East and other parts of Asia. The land has historically been home to various peoples and has witnessed numerous military campaigns, including those by Alexander the Great, Mauryas, Muslim Arabs, Mongols, British, Soviets, and since 2001 by the United States with NATO-allied countries. It has been called unconquerable and nicknamed the graveyard of empires. The land also served as the source from which the Kushans, Hephthalites, Samanids, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Khaljis, Mughals, Hotaks, Durranis, and others have risen to form major empires.The political history of the modern state of Afghanistan began with the Hotak and Durrani dynasties in the 18th century. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a buffer state in the Great Game between British India and the Russian Empire. Its border with British India, the Durand Line, was formed in 1893 but it is not recognized by the Afghan government and it has led to strained relations with Pakistan since the latter's independence in 1947. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919 the country was free of foreign influence, eventually becoming a monarchy under King Amanullah, until almost 50 years later when Zahir Shah was overthrown and a republic was established. In 1978, after a second coup Afghanistan first became a socialist state and then a Soviet Union protectorate. This evoked the Soviet–Afghan War in the 1980s against mujahideen rebels. By 1996 most of Afghanistan was captured by the Islamic fundamentalist group the Taliban, who ruled most of the country as a totalitarian regime for over five years. The Taliban were forcibly removed by the NATO-led coalition, and a new democratically-elected government political structure was formed.
Afghanistan is a unitary presidential Islamic republic with a population of 31 million, mostly composed of ethnic Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras and Uzbeks. It is a member of the United Nations, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, th ...
Afghanistan | Wikipedia audio article
This is an audio version of the Wikipedia Article:
Afghanistan
Listening is a more natural way of learning, when compared to reading. Written language only began at around 3200 BC, but spoken language has existed long ago.
Learning by listening is a great way to:
- increases imagination and understanding
- improves your listening skills
- improves your own spoken accent
- learn while on the move
- reduce eye strain
Now learn the vast amount of general knowledge available on Wikipedia through audio (audio article). You could even learn subconsciously by playing the audio while you are sleeping! If you are planning to listen a lot, you could try using a bone conduction headphone, or a standard speaker instead of an earphone.
You can find other Wikipedia audio articles too at:
You can upload your own Wikipedia articles through:
The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.
- Socrates
SUMMARY
=======
Afghanistan ( (listen); Pashto/Dari: افغانستان, Pashto: Afġānistān [avɣɒnisˈtɒn, ab-], Dari: Afġānestān [avɣɒnesˈtɒn]), officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within south-central Asia. Afghanistan is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east; Iran in the west; Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north; and in the far northeast, China. Its territory covers 652,000 square kilometers (252,000 sq mi) and much of it is covered by the Hindu Kush mountain range, which experience very cold winters. The north consists of fertile plains, whilst the south-west consists of deserts where temperatures can get very hot in summers. Kabul serves as the capital and its largest city.
Human habitation in Afghanistan dates back to the Middle Paleolithic Era, and the country's strategic location along the Silk Road connected it to the cultures of the Middle East and other parts of Asia. The land has historically been home to various peoples and has witnessed numerous military campaigns, including those by Alexander the Great, Mauryas, Muslim Arabs, Mongols, British, Soviet, and since 2001 by the United States with NATO-allied countries. It has been called unconquerable and nicknamed the graveyard of empires. The land also served as the source from which the Kushans, Hephthalites, Samanids, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Khaljis, Mughals, Hotaks, Durranis, and others have risen to form major empires.The political history of the modern state of Afghanistan began with the Hotak and Durrani dynasties in the 18th century. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a buffer state in the Great Game between British India and the Russian Empire. Its border with British India, the Durand Line, was formed in 1893 but it is not recognized by the Afghan government and it has led to strained relations with Pakistan since the latter's independence in 1947. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919 the country was free of foreign influence, eventually becoming a monarchy under King Amanullah, until almost 50 years later when Zahir Shah was overthrown and a republic was established. In 1978, after a second coup Afghanistan first became a socialist state and then a Soviet Union protectorate. This evoked the Soviet–Afghan War in the 1980s against mujahideen rebels. By 1996 most of Afghanistan was captured by the Islamic fundamentalist group the Taliban, who ruled most of the country as a totalitarian regime for over five years. The Taliban were forcibly removed by the NATO-led coalition, and a new democratically-elected government political structure was formed.
Afghanistan is a unitary presidential Islamic republic with a population of 31 million, mostly composed of ethnic Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras and Uzbeks. It is a member of the United Nations, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the Group of 77, the Economic Cooperation Organization, and the Non-Aligned Movement. Afghanistan's economy is the world's 108th largest, with a GDP of $64.08 billion; the country fares much worse in terms of per-capita GDP (PPP), ranking 167th out of 186 countries in a 2016 report from the International Monetary Fund.
Afghanistan | Wikipedia audio article
This is an audio version of the Wikipedia Article:
Afghanistan
00:03:28 1 Etymology
00:04:14 2 History
00:05:30 2.1 Pre-Islamic period
00:09:05 2.2 Islamization and Mongol invasion
00:11:32 2.3 Hotak dynasty and Durrani Empire
00:14:21 2.4 British influence and independent kingdom
00:18:45 2.5 PDPA coup d'état and Soviet war
00:22:40 2.6 Proxy and civil war and Islamic jihad 1989–96
00:26:27 2.7 Taliban Emirate and Northern Alliance
00:28:50 2.8 Recent history (2002–present)
00:31:54 3 Geography
00:35:06 4 Demographics
00:36:28 4.1 Ethnic groups
00:36:44 4.2 Languages
00:37:40 4.3 Religion
00:38:32 5 Governance
00:39:51 5.1 Elections and parties
00:41:31 5.2 Administrative divisions
00:43:04 5.3 Foreign relations and military
00:44:44 5.4 Law enforcement
00:46:17 6 Economy
00:50:03 6.1 Mining
00:52:10 7 Transportation
00:52:19 7.1 Air
00:53:15 7.2 Rail
00:54:13 7.3 Roads
00:55:11 8 Health
00:57:00 9 Education
00:59:45 10 Culture
01:02:24 10.1 Media and entertainment
01:04:47 10.2 Communication
01:05:33 10.3 Cuisine
01:06:06 10.4 Poetry
01:06:46 10.5 Sports
01:09:15 11 See also
Listening is a more natural way of learning, when compared to reading. Written language only began at around 3200 BC, but spoken language has existed long ago.
Learning by listening is a great way to:
- increases imagination and understanding
- improves your listening skills
- improves your own spoken accent
- learn while on the move
- reduce eye strain
Now learn the vast amount of general knowledge available on Wikipedia through audio (audio article). You could even learn subconsciously by playing the audio while you are sleeping! If you are planning to listen a lot, you could try using a bone conduction headphone, or a standard speaker instead of an earphone.
You can find other Wikipedia audio articles too at:
You can upload your own Wikipedia articles through:
The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.
- Socrates
SUMMARY
=======
Afghanistan ( (listen); Pashto/Dari: افغانستان, Pashto: Afġānistān [avɣɒnisˈtɒn, ab-], Dari: Afġānestān [avɣɒnesˈtɒn]), officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within south-central Asia. Afghanistan is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east; Iran in the west; Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north; and in the far northeast, China. Its territory covers 652,000 square kilometers (252,000 sq mi) and much of it is covered by the Hindu Kush mountain range, which experience very cold winters. The north consists of fertile plains, whilst the south-west consists of deserts where temperatures can get very hot in summers. Kabul serves as the capital and its largest city.
Human habitation in Afghanistan dates back to the Middle Paleolithic Era, and the country's strategic location along the Silk Road connected it to the cultures of the Middle East and other parts of Asia. The land has historically been home to various peoples and has witnessed numerous military campaigns, including those by Alexander the Great, Mauryas, Muslim Arabs, Mongols, British, Soviets, and since 2001 by the United States with NATO-allied countries. It has been called unconquerable and nicknamed the graveyard of empires. The land also served as the source from which the Kushans, Hephthalites, Samanids, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Khaljis, Mughals, Hotaks, Durranis, and others have risen to form major empires.The political history of the modern state of Afghanistan began with the Hotak and Durrani dynasties in the 18th century. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a buffer state in the Great Game between British India and the Russian Empire. Its border with British India, the Durand Line, was formed in 1893 but it is not recognized by the Afghan government and it has led to strained relations with Pakistan since the latter's independence in 1947. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919 the country was free of foreign influence, eventually becoming a monarchy under King Amanullah, until almost 50 years later when Zahir Shah was overthrown and a republic was established. In 1978, after a second coup Afghanistan first became a socialist state and then a Soviet Union protectorate. This evoked the Soviet–Afghan War in the 1980s against mujahideen rebels. By 1996 most of Afghanistan was captured by the Islamic fundamentalist group the Taliban, who ruled most of the country as a totalitarian regime for over five years. The Taliban were forcibly removed by the NATO-led coalition, and a new democratically-elected government political structure was formed.
Afghanistan is a unitary presidential Islamic republic with a population of 31 million, mostly composed of ethnic Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras and Uzbeks. It is a member of the United Nations, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, th ...