Spanish conquest of the Muisca | Wikipedia audio article
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Spanish conquest of the Muisca
00:07:25 1 Pre-Columbian history
00:08:02 1.1 Herrera Period
00:09:25 1.2 Muisca Confederation
00:13:08 2 Spanish exploration
00:17:04 2.1 The first cities
00:18:36 2.1.1 Colombian settlements founded before the main conquest
00:18:47 3 Conquest of the Muisca
00:19:41 3.1 Expedition from Santa Marta to Muisca territories
00:19:52 3.1.1 Soldiers of the first expedition
00:20:17 3.2 1535–39 – years of joint expeditions from three sides
00:20:44 3.2.1 Leaders and soldiers of De Belalcázar and Federmann
00:20:55 3.3 1536 – the harsh expedition towards Muisca territory
00:27:17 3.3.1 1536–1537 – route by the conquistadors
00:27:29 3.4 1537 – the year of the Muisca conquest
00:31:19 3.4.1 1537 – route and foundations
00:31:29 3.5 April 1537 – conquest of Bacatá
00:33:41 3.5.1 May–August 1537 – route towards Hunza through the Tenza Valley (Gonzalo)
00:33:54 3.6 August 1537 – conquest of Hunza
00:36:48 3.7 September 1537 – conquest of Sugamuxi
00:38:03 3.8 1537–38 – Bogotá savanna conquests
00:39:18 3.9 6 August 1538 – foundation of Bogotá
00:40:27 4 Later conquest expeditions
00:40:37 4.1 1538 – Battle of Tocarema and further conquest
00:41:56 4.1.1 1538–1539 – further conquest and foundations by Gonzalo
00:42:10 4.2 April 1539 – return to Spain of Gonzalo, Sebastián and Nikolaus
00:43:46 4.3 1539 – conquest of Tundama
00:46:03 5 Spanish conquest in Muisca history
00:46:14 6 Early colonial period
00:48:39 7 Modern historical revisionism
00:52:29 8 See also
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- Socrates
SUMMARY
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The Spanish conquest of the Muisca took place from 1537 to 1540. The Muisca were the inhabitants of the central Andean highlands of Colombia before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors. They were organised in a loose confederation of different rulers; the zipa of Bacatá, with his headquarters in Funza, the zaque of Hunza, the iraca of the sacred City of the Sun Sugamuxi, the Tundama of Tundama, and several independent caciques. The leaders of the Confederation at the time of conquest were zipa Tisquesusa, zaque Quemuenchatocha, iraca Sugamuxi and Tundama in the northernmost portion of their territories. The Muisca were organised in small communities of circular enclosures (ca in their language Muysccubbun; literally language of the people), with a central square where the bohío of the cacique was located. They were called Salt People because of their extraction of salt in various locations throughout their territories, mainly in Zipaquirá, Nemocón and Tausa. For the main part self-sufficient in their well-organised economy, the Muisca traded with the European conquistadors valuable products as gold, tumbaga (a copper-silver-gold alloy) and emeralds with their neighbouring indigenous groups. In the Tenza Valley, to the east of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense where the majority of the Muisca lived, they extracted emeralds in Chivor and Somondoco. The economy of the Muisca was rooted in their agriculture with main products maize, yuca, potatoes and various other cultivations elaborated on elevated fields (in their language called tá). Agriculture had started around 3000 BCE on the Altiplano, following the preceramic Herrera Period and a long epoch of hunter-gatherers since the late Pleistocene. The earliest archaeological evidence of inhabitation in Colombia, and one of the oldest in South America, has been found in El Abra, dating to around 12,500 years BP.
The main part of the Muisca civilisation was concentrated on the Bogotá savanna, a flat high plain in the Eastern Ranges of the Andes, far away from the Caribbean coast. The savanna was an ancient lake, that existed until the latest Pleistocene and formed a highly fertile soil for their agriculture. The Muisca were a deeply religious civilisation with a polytheistic society and an advanced astronomical knowledge, which was represented in their complex lunisolar calendar. Men and women had s ...
Science and technology in Venezuela | Wikipedia audio article
This is an audio version of the Wikipedia Article:
00:03:04 1 Biology
00:03:13 1.1 Ecology
00:15:45 1.2 Epidemiology
00:25:24 1.3 Microbiology
00:29:30 1.4 Immunology
00:34:59 2 Chemistry
00:35:07 2.1 Electro-chemistry
00:37:52 2.2 Food chemistry
00:41:27 2.3 Inorganic chemistry
00:45:04 2.4 Organic chemistry
00:50:56 3 Engineering
00:51:05 3.1 Civil engineering
00:53:29 3.2 Hydraulic engineering
00:54:48 3.3 Food engineering
00:57:28 3.4 Structural engineering
00:59:38 3.5 Petroleum engineering
01:01:01 4 Inventors
01:14:48 5 Mathematics
01:14:57 5.1 Calculus
01:24:00 6 Medicine
01:24:09 6.1 Experimental medicine
01:31:21 6.2 Internal medicine
01:35:25 6.3 Surgery
01:44:10 7 Physics
01:44:19 7.1 Astrophysics
01:49:01 7.2 Particle physics
01:51:45 7.3 Theoretical physics
01:53:27 8 Social sciences
01:53:36 8.1 Education
01:56:20 8.2 Sociology
02:01:11 8.3 Science journalism
02:03:31 9 Technology
02:03:40 9.1 Computer science
02:11:10 9.2 Materials Technology
02:13:18 10 Scientific institutions
02:17:29 11 See also
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Voice name: en-AU-Wavenet-D
I cannot teach anybody anything, I can only make them think.
- Socrates
SUMMARY
=======
Science and technology in Venezuela includes research based on exploring Venezuela's diverse ecology and the lives of its indigenous peoples.
Under the Spanish rule, the monarchy made very little effort to promote education in the American colonies and in particular in those in which they had less commercial interest, as in Venezuela. The country only had its first university some two hundred years later than Mexico, Colombia or Peru.
The first studies on the native languages of Venezuela and the indigenous customs were made in the middle of the XVIII century by the Catholic missionaries. The Italian Jesuit Filippo Salvatore Gilii was one of the first to theorize about linguistic relations and propose possible language families for the Orinoco river basin. The Swedish botanist Pehr Löfling, one of the 12 Apostles of Carl Linnaeus, classificated for the first time the exhuberant tropical flora of the Orinoco river basin.
In the XIX century several scientists visited Venezuela such as Alexander Humboldt, Aimé Bonpland, Agostino Codazzi, Jean-Baptiste Boussingault, Mariano Rivero, François de Pons, Robert Hermann Schomburgk, Wilhelm Sievers, Carl Ferdinand Appun, Gustav Karsten, Adolf Ernst, Benedikt Roezl, Karl Moritz, Friedrich Gerstäcker, Anton Goering, Johann Gottlieb Benjamin Siegert, Alfred Russel Wallace, Jean Chaffanjon, Émile-Arthur Thouar, Jules Crevaux and many others, some of whom are buried in Venezuela.
The Venezuelan Institute for Scientific Research (IVIC) founded on February 9, 1959 by government decree, has its origins in the Venezuelan Institute of Neurology and Brain Research (IVNIC) which Dr. Humberto Fernandez Moran founded in 1955.
Other major research institutions include the Central University of Venezuela and the University of the Andes, Venezuela.
Notable Venezuelan scientists include nineteenth century physician José María Vargas , the chemist Vicente Marcano and the botanist and geographer Alfredo Jahn (1867–1940). More recently, Baruj Benacerraf shared the 1980 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, Augusto Pi Sunyer (1955), Aristides Bastidas (1980), Marcel Roche (1987) and Marisela Salvatierra (2002) have been recipients of UNESCO's Kalinga Prize for promotion of the public understanding of science. On July 2, 2012, L. Rafael Reif – a Venezuelan American electrical engineer, inventor and academic administrator – was elected president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.