Lynching in the United States | Wikipedia audio article
This is an audio version of the Wikipedia Article:
Lynching in the United States
00:03:30 1 Background
00:07:58 2 Name origin
00:08:28 3 Social characteristics
00:11:32 4 The West
00:14:42 5 Reconstruction (1865–1877)
00:18:48 6 Disenfranchisement (1877–1917)
00:23:19 6.1 Other ethnicities
00:26:20 6.2 Enforcing Jim Crow
00:33:30 7 Photographic records and postcards
00:38:22 7.1 Resistance
00:41:43 7.2 Federal action limited by the Solid South
00:44:53 7.3 Great Migration
00:46:53 8 World War I to World War II
00:47:04 8.1 Resistance
00:48:11 8.2 New Klan
00:51:26 8.3 Continuing resistance
00:57:00 8.4 Federal action and southern resistance
01:00:34 9 World War II to present
01:00:44 9.1 Second Great Migration
01:01:41 9.2 Federal action
01:03:36 9.3 Lynching and the Cold War
01:05:13 9.4 Civil Rights Movement
01:08:32 9.5 After the Civil Rights Movement
01:11:48 10 Effects
01:12:29 11 Statistics
01:18:30 12 Representation in popular culture
01:18:41 12.1 Literature and film
01:24:52 12.2 Strange Fruit
01:26:05 13 Laws
01:29:31 13.1 State laws
01:33:32 14 See also
01:33:41 15 Notes
01:33:49 16 Books and references
01:39:24 17 Further reading
01:43:36 18 External links
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- Socrates
SUMMARY
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Lynching is the practice of murder by a group by extrajudicial action. Lynchings in the United States rose in number after the American Civil War in the late 1800s, following the emancipation of slaves; they declined in the 1920s but have continued to take place into the 21st century. Most lynchings were of African-American men in the South, but women were also lynched, and white lynchings of blacks occurred in Midwestern and border states, especially during the 20th-century Great Migration of blacks out of the South. The purpose was to enforce white supremacy and intimidate blacks by racial terrorism. On a per capita basis lynchings were also common in California and the Old West, especially of Latinos, although they represented less than 10% of the national total. Native Americans and Asian Americans were also lynched. Other ethnicities (white, Finnish-American, Jewish, Irish, Italian-American) were occasionally lynched.
The stereotype of a lynching is a hanging, because hangings are what crowds of people saw, and are also easy to photograph. Some hangings were professionally photographed and sold as postcards, which were popular souvenirs in some parts of the U.S. Victims were also killed by mobs in a variety of other ways: shot repeatedly, burned alive, forced to jump off a bridge, dragged behind cars, and the like. Sometimes they were tortured as well, with body parts sometimes removed and sold as souvenirs. Occasionally lynchings were not fatal (see Lynching survivors in the United States). A mock lynching, putting the rope around the neck of someone suspected of concealing information, might be used to compel confessions.According to the Tuskegee Institute, 4,743 people were lynched between 1882 and 1968 in the United States, including 3,446 African Americans and 1,297 whites. More than 73 percent of lynchings in the post-Civil War period occurred in the Southern states. According to the Equal Justice Initiative, 4,084 African-Americans were lynched between 1877 and 1950 in the South.Lynchings were most frequent from 1890 to the 1920s, with a peak in 1892. Lynchings were often large mob actions, attended by hundreds or thousands of watchers, sometimes announced in advance in newspapers and in one instance with a special train. However, in the later 20th century lynchings became more secretive, and were conducted by smaller groups of people.
According to Michael Pfeifer, the prevalence of lynching in postbellum America reflects lack of confidence in the due process judicial system. He links the decline in lynching in the early twentieth century with the advent of the modern death penalty: legislators renovated the death penalty...out of direct concern for the alternative of mob violence. He also cites the modern, racialized excesses of u ...
Byzantine Empire | Wikipedia audio article
This is an audio version of the Wikipedia Article:
Byzantine Empire
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The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.
- Socrates
SUMMARY
=======
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire and Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul, which had been founded as Byzantium). It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in Europe. Both Byzantine Empire and Eastern Roman Empire are historiographical terms created after the end of the realm; its citizens continued to refer to their empire simply as the Roman Empire (Greek: Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων, tr. Basileia Rhōmaiōn; Latin: Imperium Romanum), or Romania (Ῥωμανία), and to themselves as Romans.Several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empire's Greek East and Latin West divided. Constantine I (r. 324–337) reorganised the empire, made Constantinople the new capital, and legalised Christianity. Under Theodosius I (r. 379–395), Christianity became the Empire's official state religion and other religious practices were proscribed. Finally, under the reign of Heraclius (r. 610–641), the Empire's military and administration were restructured and adopted Greek for official use instead of Latin. Thus, although the Roman state continued and its traditions were maintained, modern historians distinguish Byzantium from ancient Rome insofar as it was centred on Constantinople, oriented towards Greek rather than Latin culture, and characterised by Orthodox Christianity.The borders of the empire evolved significantly over its existence, as it went through several cycles of decline and recovery. During the reign of Justinian I (r. 527–565), the Empire reached its greatest extent after reconquering much of the historically Roman western Mediterranean coast, including North Africa, Italy, and Rome itself, which it held for two more centuries. During the reign of Maurice (r. 582–602), the Empire's eastern frontier was expanded and the north stabilised. However, his assassination caused the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, which exhausted the empire's resources and contributed to major territorial losses during the Early Muslim conquests of the seventh century. In a matter of years the empire lost its richest provinces, Egypt and Syria, to the Arabs. During the Macedonian dynasty (10th–11th centuries), the empire again expanded and experienced the two-century long Macedonian Renaissance, which came to an end with the loss of much of Asia Minor to the Seljuk Turks after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia.
The empire recovered again during the Komnenian restoration, such that by the 12th century Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city. However, it was delivered a mortal blow during the Fourth Crusade, when Constantinople was sacked in 1204 and the territories that the empire formerly governed were divided into competing Byzantine Greek and Latin realms. Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small rival states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were progressively annexed by the Ottomans over the 14th and 15th century. The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire. The last of the imperial Byzantine successor states, the Empire of Trebizond, would be conquered by the Ottomans eight years later in the 1461 Siege of Trebizond.